affix
a word part, either a prefix or a suffix, that changes the meaning or function of a base word.

alphabetic principle
the principle that there is an association between sounds and the letters that represent them in alphabetic writing systems

analogy
a likeness or similarity. To use analogies in reading and writing is to look for similarities between known words and unfamiliar words that can help in decoding or encoding the unfamiliar words

analytic phonics
also known as deductive phonics. A whole-to-part approach to phonics in which a student is taught a number of sight words and then phonetic generalizations that can be applied to other words

asking questions
a comprehension strategy that involves readers asking strategic questions that help focus attention on what they are reading and engages the reader in deeper understanding of themes, concepts, and ideas

auditory discrimination
the ability to hear phonetic likenesses and differences in phonemes and words

automaticity
fluent processing of information, requiring little effort or attention

base word
a word to which affixes may be added to create related words

blend
the joining of the sounds of two or more letters with little change in those sounds

blending
to combine the sounds represented by letters to sound out or pronounce a word

browse
to skim through or look over reading material in search of something of interest

choral reading
oral group reading to develop oral fluency by modeling. In choral reading, the students read as a group

clarifying
a comprehension strategy in which the reader rereads text, uses a dictionary, uses decoding skills, or uses context clues to comprehend something that is unclear

collaborative learning
learning by working together in small groups

comprehension
the understanding of that which is written, read, or spoken

comprehension skill
a skill that aids in understanding text. Includes identifying the author's purpose, comprehending cause-and-effect relationships, comparing and contrasting items and events, drawing conclusions, distinguishing fact from opinion, identifying the main idea, making inferences, distinguishing reality from fantasy, and understanding sequence

comprehension strategy
a sequence of steps for understanding text. Includes asking questions, monitoring and clarifying, making connections, predicting, summarizing, visualizing, and monitoring and adjusting reading speed

conjecture
a critical aspect of research in which the researcher makes an inference or judgment based on incomplete or inconclusive evidence. Proving, disproving, or further illuminating the conjecture then becomes the focus of the research

consonant
a speech sound, and the alphabet letter that represents that sound, made by partial or complete closure of part of the vocal tract, which obstructs air flow and causes audible friction

context clue
information from the immediate text that helps identify a word

convention
an accepted practice in spoken or written language, usually referring to spelling, mechanics, or grammar rule

cooperative learning
a classroom organization that allows students to work together to achieve their individual goals

decodable text
text materials controlled to include a majority of words whose sound/spelling relationships are known by the reader

decode
to analyze spoken or graphic symbols for meaning

dictation
an encoding activity designed to review and reinforce instruction in sound/spelling correspondences. The teacher says or dictates a word and the children use their knowledge of sound/spelling correspondences to write the word

digraph
two letters that represent one speech sound, for example, /sh/ or /ch/

diphthong
a vowel sound produced when the tongue glides from one vowel sound toward another in the same syllable; for example, /oi/ or /ou/

drafting
the process of writing ideas in rough form to record them. This is the second step in the writing process

early alphabetic stage of reading and writing
the stage of reading and writing acquisition at which children begin to learn that letters correspond to the sounds that make up spoken words

emergent literacy
the development of the association of meaning and print that continues until a child reaches the stage of conventional reading and writing

encode
to change a message into symbols; for example, to change speech into writing

expository writing
a composition in writing that explains an event or process

fluency
freedom from word-identification problems that hinder comprehension in reading

frustration level text
text in which more than 1 in 10 words are difficult for the reader, resulting in less than 90% success in reading the words

grapheme
a written or printed representation of a phoneme, such as c for /k/

handing off
a method of turning over to the students the primary responsibility for controlling discussion

independent level text
text in which no more than approximately 1 in 20 words is difficult for the reader, assuring 95% success in reading the words

inflectional ending
an ending that expresses a plural or possessive form of a noun, the tense of a verb, or the comparative or superlative form of an adjective or adverb

instructional level text
text in which no more than approximately 1 in 10 words is difficult for the reader, assuring 90% accuracy in reading the words

intervention
a strategy or program designed to supplement or substitute instruction, especially for those students who fall behind

invented spelling
the result of an attempt to spell a word based on the writer's incomplete knowledge of the spelling system and how it works

later alphabetic stage of reading and writing
the stage of reading and writing acquisition during which children become more adept at sounding out words and phonetic spelling. Phonemic awareness is acquired and children start understanding how patterns of print represent speech sounds

letter
one of a set of graphic symbols that forms an alphabet; used alone or in combination to represent a phoneme (also grapheme)

linguistics
the study of the nature and structure of language and communication.

making connections
a comprehension strategy in which the reader connects what they know or have experienced to what they are reading

metacognition
awareness and knowledge of one's mental processes or thinking about what one is thinking about

modeling
an instructional technique in which the teacher thinks aloud about some aspect of learning

monitoring and adjusting reading speed
a comprehension strategy in which the reader reacts actively to the text­sometimes skimming over unimportant information or information the reader already knows and sometimes rereading sections that are especially relevant to his or her reading goals

monitoring and clarifying
a comprehension strategy in which the reader monitors that which he or she is reading for understanding and uses different aspects of the text to clarify confusing or unknown elements; for example, the use of context clues, word structure, apposition, and rereading. Outside sources, such as dictionaries, encyclopedias, or another person, may also be used in clarifying.

morpheme
a meaningful linguistic unit that cannot be divided into smaller units­for example, word; a bound morpheme is a morpheme that cannot stand alone in a word, for example, the prefix re-

onsets and rimes
parts of spoken language that are smaller than syllables but larger than phonemes. An onset is the initial consonant(s) sound of a syllable (the onset of dig is d-; of swat, sw-). A rime is the part of a syllable that contains the vowel and all that follows it (the rime of dig is -ig; of swat, -at).

onset
the initial consonant(s) sound of a syllable (the onset of dig is d-; of swat, sw-)

oral blending
the ability to fuse discrete phonemes into recognizable words; oral blending puts sounds together to make a word

orthographic stage of reading and writing
stage of reading and writing acquisition at which children learn specific sound/spelling relationships and apply that knowledge to the written word—both in their attempts to read and their attempts at writing

phoneme
the smallest sound unit of speech; for example, the /k/ in book

phonemic awareness
the ability to recognize that spoken words are made up of discrete sounds and that those sounds can be manipulated

phonetics
the study of speech sounds

phonics
a way of teaching reading that addresses sound/symbol relationships; used especially in beginning instruction

phonological awareness
the ability to identify and manipulate the sounds of spoken language, including words, syllables, onsets and rimes, and phonemes

prealphabetic stage of reading and writing
a stage in the development of reading and writing in which the child understands that print conveys meaning but does not understand how. At this stage, the child has no knowledge or understanding of the alphabetic principle.

pre-decodable stories
stories written using only sight words and rebus pictures to help pre-readers learn essential sight words and help them develop print and book awareness

predicting
a comprehension strategy in which the reader attempts to figure out what will happen and then confirms predictions as the text is read

prefix
an affix attached before a base word that changes the meaning of a word

prewriting
the planning stage of the writing process in which the writer formulates ideas, gathers information, and considers ways to organize them

print awareness
in emergent literacy, a child's growing recognition of conventions and characteristics of written language, including that text is read from left to right and top to bottom in English, and that words are separated by spaces

proofreading
self-correcting activity in which the students immediately correct their written work for accuracy. Proofreading is always the last step in dictation activities

publishing
the process of preparing written material for presentation; the last step in the writing process

rebus
the use of a picture or symbol to suggest a word or syllable

research cycle
the steps a researcher goes through in the course of research. These include: identifying the research problem or question; formulating a conjecture about the research problem; identifying needs and making plans; reevaluating the problem or question based on what has been learned; revising the conjecture; making interim presentations; identifying new needs; and making new plans based on new knowledge and input.

revising
to change or correct a manuscript to further clarify its message. The third step in the writing process

rhyme
identical or very similar recurring final sounds in words, often at the ends of lines of poetry

rime
the part of a syllable that contains the vowel and all that follows it (the rime of dig is -ig; of swat, -at)

schwa
an unstressed vowel sound that is generally pronounced /u/. For example, in the word sofa, the final a is unstressed and sounds like /u/ when pronounced.

segmentation (segmenting)
Breaking words into their individual phonemes. Segmenting can also refer to breaking words into syllables, and syllables into onsets and rimes.

semantic map
a graphic display of a group of words that are meaningfully related to support vocabulary instruction

sentence lifting
the process of using sentences from children's writing to illustrate what is wrong or right to develop the children's editing and proofreading skills

sequence
the order of elements or events

sight word
a word that is taught to be read as a whole word and not phonetically blended, usually words that are phonetically irregular

sounds-in-sequence dictation
dictation activity in which each sound is segmented and spelled with the help of the teacher before the next sound is identified and spelled

suffix
an affix attached to the end of a base word that changes the meaning of the word

summarizing
a comprehension strategy in which the reader constructs a brief statement that contains the essential ideas of a passage

syllable
a minimal unit of sequential speech sounds comprised of a vowel sound or a vowel-sound combination, for example: ba/na/na

syntax
the grammatical pattern or structure of word order in sentences, clauses, and phrases

visualizing
a comprehension strategy in which the reader constructs a mental picture of a character, setting, or process

vowel
a voiced speech sound and the alphabet letter that represents that sound, made without stoppage or friction of the air flow as it passes through the vocal tract

vowel digraph
a spelling pattern in which two or more letters represent that sound

whole-word dictation
dictation activity in which the word is pronounced and the students sound it out to themselves as they write it. Less teacher support is provided in whole-word dictation than in sounds-in-sequence dictation.

workshop
a time set aside during the school day in which students learn independence through working on individual and group projects, as well as a time in which the teacher works with individuals and small groups

writing process
the many aspects of the complex act of producing a piece of writing, including prewriting, drafting, revising, proofreading, and publishing